社會心理學: 當代文叢 - PSYCHOLOGY

· 當代文叢 - PSYCHOLOGY Book 3 · 愛知社
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1、怎樣形成對他人的印象?

對他人形成印象的過程也叫做印象形成,它是指我們把他人若干有意義的人格特性進行綜合、概括、形成一個具有結論意義的特性的過程。心理學家阿希(S. Asch)最早對此進行了系統的研究,在研究中阿希把人格特性分爲中心特徵(比如「熱情」和「冷淡」)和邊緣特徵(「文雅」和「粗魯」),結果發現我們對他人的印象形成主要是按照中心特徵,邊緣特徵所起的作用不大。阿希之后,其他的心理學家繼續對印象形成的過程進行研究,並從以下幾個方面對這個過程的特性做了總結。

(1)第一印象

在與陌生人交往的過程中,我們所得到的有關對方的最初印象叫做第一印象。第一印象中最重要、最有力的是評價,即在多大程度上喜歡或討厭對方。第一印象包含很多維度,如友善、健康等,但所以這些維度都離不開評價,評價是我們對他人形成印象的基本維度。

奧斯古德等人(Osgood & Suci, Tanenbaum) 用語義分析的實驗就證明了我們評價事物時的幾個基本維度。在研究中他們給給被試一張配對的特質形容詞表,讓他們把某一特殊的人或物歸到這些特質上去。配對特質包括快樂與悲傷、好與壞、強壯與軟弱、溫暖與冷淡等。評定的項目包括母親、玉石等。例如,讓被試評定母親是快樂還是悲傷的等,最后找出了被試評定人或事物時的三個基本維度:

評價(evaluation):指對他人或事物從好與壞方面加以評定。

力量(potency):指對他人或事物從力量的強弱方面加以評定。

活動性(activity):指對他人或事物從主動與被動方面加以評定。

奧斯古德發現,一旦某個人或物被置於這三個維度上,即使有再多的評定,也無法增加對這個人的信息。同時在這三個維度中,評價是最重要的維度,一旦人們對他人在這個維度上定位,那麼對這個人的其他知覺也基本落在同一地方。初次見面,你一旦對某個人形成有利或不利的印象之后,會把它延伸到其他方面。所以有人總結說:第一印象並非總是正確的,但卻總是最鮮明、最牢固的,它決定着我們對他人的知覺。

金德等人(Kinder、Abelson)對1980年美國總統選舉的研究則發現人們在對總統候選人進行評價時的兩個維度:能力(competence)和是否正直(integrity)。前者包括知識能力、感召力以及領導能力;后者則在包括是否有道德、誠實以及對權力的慾望等。美國人正是根據在這兩個維度上對候選人的評價來決定誰該當選,結果因爲里根在這兩個方面佔優而擊敗卡特當選爲美國總統。

(2)整體印象

人們在知覺他人的時候往往會獲得許多有關他人的信息,那麼,人們又是怎樣把這些信息整合在一起,形成對他人的整體印象呢?心理學家安德森(Anderson)等人從20世紀60年代開始就系統地對這個問題進行研究,並在研究的基礎上提出了幾個信息加工處理的模型,這些模型在一定程度上的到了后來研究的驗證。

第一個模型是平均模型(The averaging model):它是安德森在1965提出來的,該模型認爲在印象形成過程中,我們以簡單平均的方式處理所獲得的有關他人的信息。如表2-1所示:蘇珊對約翰的整體印象的形成就是依據平均模型,她把自己對約翰的單個評價加起來,然后求其平均數。平均模型是我們對他人形成印象時採取的最爲簡單的模型。

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About the author

 戴維·邁爾斯是當今版稅收入最高的心理學家,在霍普學院擔任了三十餘年的John Dirk Werkman心理學教授。作爲一名傑出的研究者,他因對羣體極化的研究獲得了美國心理學會頒發的gordonallport獎。邁爾斯曾在30多種科學期刊上發表過論文,包括世界頂級學術刊物《科學》。他所撰寫的《心理學》是當今最暢銷的心理學導論性教材,600多萬學生在用它來學習心理學。

 

David Guy Myers (born 20 September 1942) is a professor of psychology at Hope College in Michigan, United States, and the author of 17 books, including popular textbooks entitled Psychology, Exploring Psychology, Social Psychology and general-audience books dealing with issues related to Christian faith as well as scientific psychology. In addition, he has published chapters in over 60 books and numerous scholarly research articles in professional journals.

Myers was born in Seattle, Washington and graduated from Seattle's Queen Anne High School in 1960. He attended Whitworth University, from which he received his B.A. in chemistry magna cum laude in 1964, having been a pre-med student. However, his graduate work went in a different direction, that of social psychology. He received his M.A. in social psychology in 1966 and his Ph.D. in social psychology the following year for thesis titled Enhancement of Initial Risk Taking Tendencies in Social Situations, both at the University of Iowa.

Myers has spent most of his career at Hope College, rising through the ranks of assistant professor (1967), associate professor (1970, and since 1975, full professor. He served as a visiting scholar at the Universität Mannheim (Germany), in the summer of 1974, and at the University of St. Andrews (Scotland), in 1985.

Myers has received fellowships and grants from the U.S. Public Health Service and the National Science Foundation and is a fellow of the American Psychological Association, the American Psychological Society and the American Association of Applied and Preventive Psychology. He is one of the most important authors of psychology textbooks and is the recipient of honorary doctorates from three different educational institutions.

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